and the Raʾs al-Jālūt of the Jews, and he obliged them to wear the ghiyār (distinctive badge) (1).
In the month of Ramadan, by order of the Caliph, Jalāl al-Dawla was granted the honorific “Shāhanshāh al-Aʿẓam, King of Kings.” The title was proclaimed from the pulpits, but the common folk took offence, pelted the preachers with bricks, and a great disturbance broke out. The jurists were therefore consulted.
Abū ʿAbd Allāh al-Ṣaymarī issued a fatwa, saying: “In matters of titles, what counts is intention and purpose. Allah, Exalted is He, has said: ‘Indeed Allah has raised up Ṭālūt as a king over you’ (Q 2:247), and He said: ‘Behind them was a king’ (Q 18:79). Since there are kings on earth, it is permissible that some be above others because of their greater power and capability, and that some be greater (2) than others. Nothing in this necessitates censure or entails likening the Creator to the created.”
Qāḍī Abū al-Ṭayyib al-Ṭabarī wrote: “Using the title ‘King of Kings’ is permissible, meaning: king over the kings of the earth. Just as it is allowed to say ‘Protector of Protectors’ or ‘Judge of Judges,’ so too is ‘King of Kings’ permissible. If the wording makes clear that what is meant is the kings of the earth, the doubt is removed. Similarly, one may say, ‘O Allah, set right the king,’ and the phrase is immediately understood to concern created beings.”
Al-Tamīmī the Ḥanbalī wrote to the same effect. As for Qāḍī al-Māwardī, author of “al-Ḥāwī al-Kabīr,” it is related that he likewise permitted the title. What is more widely reported from him, however—as transmitted by Ibn al-Jawzī (3) and by Shaykh Abū ʿAmr Ibn al-Ṣalāḥ in “Adab al-Muftī”—is that he forbade it and persisted in his prohibition, despite his companionship with King Jalāl al-Dawla, his frequent visits to him, and the esteem in which he was held. Indeed, he refrained from attending the royal court until Jalāl al-Dawla summoned him on a feast day. When he entered, he did so anxious and fearful that some harm might befall him.
When the king met him, he said, “I know that what kept you from agreeing with those who permitted the title—despite your closeness to me and your standing with me—was your religion and your adherence to the truth; the truth is dearer to you than anyone else. Had you been inclined to flatter anyone, you would have flattered me. This has only increased my affection and esteem for you.”
I say: The prohibition adopted by Qāḍī al-Māwardī accords with the Sunnah, attested by sound hadiths on multiple chains. Imām Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal said in his Musnad (4): Sufyān ibn ʿUyaynah narrated to us, from Abū al-Zinād, from al-Aʿraj, from Abū Hurayrah, that the Prophet ﷺ said:
“The most abased name in the sight of Allah on the Day of Resurrection is a man who styles himself ‘King of Kings.’”
Aḥmad added: I asked Abū ʿAmr al-Shaybānī about the meaning of “akhnaʿ,” and he replied, “the lowest.”
Al-Bukhārī (5) also transmitted this hadith, from ʿAlī ibn al-Madīnī, from Sufyān ibn ʿUyaynah.