that the Syrians were a rebellious faction with no rightful claim. More than one historian of the campaigns relates that they fought with spears until the shafts splintered (1), then with arrows until the quivers were emptied, and with swords until the blades broke. After that they grappled hand-to-hand, hurling stones and handfuls of earth into one another’s faces, and even biting. Two men would keep at it until both were badly wounded (2); they would then sit to rest, blood from each of them streaming onto the other, and when they had caught their breath they would rise and fight again as before—neither able to flee from the other. To Allah we belong, and to Him we shall return.
This went on until Friday dawned and the people were still in that state. They performed the dawn prayer only by signaling with their heads (3), all the while fighting until the sun had climbed high and victory began to favor the Iraqis (4) over the Syrians. The reason was that al-Ashtar al-Nakhaʿi—one of the fearless champions well-versed in warfare—had taken command of the right wing. He charged with his men against the Syrians, and ʿAli followed him; most of their ranks collapsed and they were on the verge of rout (5).
At that moment the Syrians raised copies of the Quran on the tips of their spears and cried out, “This is our arbiter between us and you! The people are being annihilated—who will defend the frontier towns, who will wage jihad against the idolaters and the unbelievers?” (6)
Ibn Jarir (7) and other historians report that the one who advised hoisting the Qurans (8) was ʿAmr ibn al-ʿĀs. When he saw that the Iraqis had prevailed (9) in that encounter, he wished to break off the engagement and postpone the outcome, for each army was standing firm against the other and the men were being consumed. He said to Muʿawiyah, “I have thought of something that will only increase our unity at this very moment and only scatter them (10): let us raise the Qurans and summon them to arbitration by them. If they all agree, the fighting will cease at once; but if they differ among themselves, with some saying we should answer and others (11) saying we should not, they will be crippled and their strength will evaporate.”
Imam Ahmad (12) recorded: Yaʿla ibn ʿUbayd narrated to us, from ʿAbd al-ʿAziz ibn Siyyah, from Habib ibn Abi Thabit, who said: