and they made no demand for change or attempt at influence, even though on certain festive occasions or at funerals they would appear and stir themselves.

[3 – Scholarly Life]
In this somber, overcast atmosphere, the world of learning was nevertheless flourishing, yielding its choicest fruits and finest results. Scholars enjoyed the favor of the rulers and the respect of the populace; numerous schools were erected, endowed with waqf properties, and supplied with generous funds. The Mamluks sought popular goodwill by elevating the scholars’ standing, awarding prizes, and assigning religious posts to the distinguished and reputable among them—especially in times of crisis, when they needed the ʿulamāʾ and their powerful sway over the Muslim masses.

To one who reflects on scholarly life during the eighth century AH, the following features become apparent:

First: the greatness and perennial vitality of Islam. It is an impregnable rock upon which the ambitions of invaders and the pickaxes of destroyers shatter. In this era Islam was tested by the harshest ordeals, yet emerged safe and victorious; it even touched its harsh, resentful enemies, who ultimately embraced it and rallied under its banner.

Second: the energy, sheer number, and prolific output of scholars in this century. Through their writings they linked the nation’s past with its present and future, proving the firmness of their stance and showing that the surrounding darkness had not overwhelmed them with despair.

Third: doctrinal disputes—especially between Sunnis and Shiʿis and among the legal schools—sapped scholarly life, consuming vast amounts of time and effort. The past thus became a burden on the present and brought no tangible benefit to the community’s current situation or its future.

Fourth: certain Sufi orders that did not adhere to the Qur’an and Sunnah stifled minds and thought, blocked every avenue of development and reform, and consumed the scholars’ time and lifespans in composing refutations to expose innovations, lay bare superstitions, and move beyond mere appearances and husks.

Fifth: exclusive preoccupation with the religious sciences to the neglect of the natural sciences led to the eclipse of the sun of civilization that had once shone so brightly in Baghdad, flooding the horizons with its radiant light. Yet acquiring worldly sciences, advancing industry, and gaining the means of power are religious imperatives, for they are neglected communal obligations (farḍ kifāyah) whose absence only deepens the Muslims’ weakness and backwardness.

[4 – Intellectual Life]
The scholarly activity of the eighth century AH did not blossom into a vigorous or animated intellectual life; rather, its outward manifestations remained