and of the principles and objectives of the Sacred Law, as well as the scholars’ discussions of the innovations practiced by some healers, I almost reached the firm conclusion that the default in this matter was to go no further than the revealed texts and that it was devotional in nature. Whoever departed from the texts would thus be a transgressor and an innovator, and his practice could rightly be called a religious innovation. I would have concluded this were it not for what I found stated by the hadith master Ibn Hajar and, on his authority, by al-Suyūtī, may Allah have mercy on them both, as well as by a number of scholars: Ibn Hajar reported a consensus on the general permissibility of ruqyahs not transmitted in the Sunnah, subject to three conditions.

I am not certain about this reported consensus, for it is not consensus in the strict technical sense recognized by legal theorists. Many an issue has been reported as a matter of consensus despite a well-known disagreement concerning it. Scholars know that consensus cannot arise after a settled disagreement, just as disagreement is inconceivable after a consensus in that strict technical sense.

To spell this out: scholars have differed over whether ruqyah and its means must be confined to what the Lawgiver has prescribed, or whether the default is to use independent judgment and empirical experience in ruqyah and in the manner of performing it. They nevertheless agree that anything involving a proscribed or forbidden element is itself forbidden. The prevalent view favors independent judgment and empirical experience. Its proponents cite several sound hadiths, including the following:

Muslim narrated from Jābir, who said: “The Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, forbade ruqyahs. The family of Amr ibn Hazm then came to the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, and said, ‘O Messenger of Allah, we had a ruqyah that we used against scorpion stings, but you have forbidden ruqyahs.’ They presented it to him, and he said, ‘I see nothing wrong with it. Whoever among you is able to benefit his brother should do so.’”

This hadith shows that the ruqyahs in question were inherited from pre-Islamic times, yet they contained nothing forbidden, as demonstrated by the Prophet’s approval, may Allah bless him and grant him peace. Moreover, his words, “Whoever among you is able,” are general in scope.

Muslim also narrated from Awf ibn Mālik al-Ashja'ī, who said: “We used to practice ruqyah in pre-Islamic times, so we asked, ‘O Messenger of Allah, what do you think of that?’ He replied, ‘Present your ruqyahs to me. There is nothing wrong with ruqyah so long as it contains no polytheism.’”

This provides the same basis of inference as the preceding hadith.

Among these is also the hadith of Abū Sa'īd al-Khudrī, may Allah Most High be pleased with him, who said: “A group of the Prophet’s Companions, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, set out