be knowledge attained through unveiling and direct witnessing that cannot be attained by reason alone, whether this is granted only to prophets, to prophets and saints, or to them and others. Yet one must distinguish between what lies beyond reason’s grasp and what reason knows to be impossible; between what reason does not know to be established and what reason knows to be false; and between what baffles reason and what is rationally impossible. The messengers—may Allah’s blessings and peace be upon them—may convey matters that baffle reason, meaning matters that reason cannot discover, but they do not convey rational impossibilities, meaning matters that reason knows to be impossible.”

I said, “This is clear and evident. Suppose someone claimed to know through unveiling, spiritual experience, and direct witnessing, or through reports from the prophets—may blessings and peace be upon them—or through some other means, that one is not half of two; that what necessarily exists in itself can be impossible in itself; that the created being is identical in its essential reality to the Creator; or that all existence is contingent, with neither any necessary existence nor any beginningless existence. These and similar propositions concern matters whose necessity, impossibility, or possibility reason knows. Whoever claims to know, through unveiling and sight, or through hearing and reports from the prophets—peace be upon them—something that contradicts this has made a false claim.”