affirm an esoteric meaning contrary to the apparent meaning in matters of doctrine. As for matters of practice, they accept their apparent meaning. This is the position of the more rational philosophers who affiliate themselves with Islam, although they are inconsistent in their adherence to the practices prescribed by the Sharia because of the sickness and hypocrisy in their hearts. At times, they consider these obligations to be waived for themselves, or for some of them, but not for ordinary people. Ibn Sīnā was inconsistent on this matter, though he did make a pledge in which he committed himself to conforming to the Sharia. In general, they consider conformity to the Sharia in practical matters preferable to contravening it. This is not the place to detail people’s doctrines, and the forms of falsehood can scarcely be exhaustively catalogued.

As for the second category, these are those who discuss inward matters of practice and knowledge, while maintaining that they accord with the outward meaning and agreeing that anyone who claims an inward meaning that contradicts the outward meaning is a hypocrite and a heretic. These are the people known throughout the Muslim community as Sufis. In discussing inward acts and knowledge of inward matters, they draw upon scriptural evidence from the Quran and Sunnah, just as such evidence is used to establish outward acts. Within the knowledge of religion and Islam, this is analogous to a person having both a body and a heart. These people are among the most vehement in condemning anyone who