the one for whom he acts, as in the case of a servant and his master. It is impossible for anything other than Allah to be nobler than Him; hence, He cannot act for another’s sake.

If it is said that He created the world for no purpose, He would be acting frivolously, and frivolity is impossible for the Wise. Moreover, this would mean giving preference to one of the two possible alternatives over the other without a determining factor, which is impossible.

The second argument:

If He acted by choice, either it would be possible for Him to do evil or it would not. Alternatively, one may say: either it would be possible for Him to do anything whatsoever, or He must be above certain actions.

If it is said that He may do evil, there would be no assurance against His confirming lying claimants to prophethood through miracles, nor against His giving reports contrary to reality. Lying and confirming a liar are evil, and allowing these possibilities invalidates prophethood and the reports concerning the Hereafter. These two possibilities would undermine the religions.

If it is said that He does not do evil, and this is evil.

Second:

The world is filled to overflowing with evils and afflictions, and all manner of pain and punishments. The claim that He acts for a purpose is untenable. Once both alternatives have been invalidated, the claim that there is an agent acting by choice is likewise invalidated.

As for using this argument to deny a Creator altogether, it may be stated as follows: If