that an agent is not permitted to undertake. The same applies to the deputies of those in authority, such as the deputy of the supreme imam who holds the highest office of leadership, the deputy of a judge, the deputy of a prayer leader, and others. Each performs acts of the same kind as those performed by the person who appointed him. All of this is impossible with regard to Allah. To believe that anyone stands in such a relationship to Him is among the gravest forms of polytheism and constitutes taking human beings as lords. Allah Most High says:

“They have taken their rabbis and monks as lords besides Allah, and also the Messiah, son of Mary, although they were commanded only to worship one God. There is no god but Him. Glory be to Him above what they associate with Him! (31)” [al-Tawbah 31]

And He Most High says:

“It is not for a human being whom Allah has given the Scripture, judgment, and prophethood to then tell people, ‘Be my servants rather than Allah’s.’ Rather, ‘Be devoted scholars of the Lord through your teaching of the Scripture and your study of it.’ (79) Nor would he command you to take the angels and prophets as lords. Would he command you to disbelieve after you have submitted to Allah? (80)” [Āl ʿImrān 79–80]

This is made clear by the fact that those of the highest rank before Allah among His creation are His messengers. The messengers merely convey His commands and prohibitions; they command only what He has commanded. Thus, the foremost principle of Islam is the testimony that there is no god but Allah and that Muhammad is His servant and messenger.