, and then, at the third and fourth levels, the spoken name and its written form correspond to this meaning in the mind. Thus, concerning a general term whose meaning is necessarily shared, one says: “Existents are divided into necessary and contingent,” and “Living beings are divided into necessary and contingent,” and so forth, since what is being divided is common to all the categories.

Concerning an unrestricted term whose conception does not preclude its being shared, though it does not require this, one says: “An existent may be necessary or contingent,” and “The term ‘existent’ applies to both the necessary and the contingent.” The same applies to “living,” “knowing,” and “powerful.” In the particular case, one says: “This existent” and “this living being.”

All of Allah’s names are specific to Him. However, if the element specifying their reference is removed, whether verbally or in intention, some of them can be treated as unrestricted and general, such as “knowing,” “hearing,” “seeing,” “living,” and the like. This is not possible with others.

For this reason, in their treatment of oaths, the jurists divided these names into three categories. One category is exclusive to Allah and may not be used to name anyone else, such as “Allah” and “Lord of the worlds.” These refer to Him unambiguously. Another category is ordinarily understood to refer to Allah, although it may be used to name someone else when accompanied by a contextual indication. Using such a name likewise constitutes an oath when used without qualification and when accompanied by that intention