came up with an argument like those of the Christian heretics. These heretics claim that the spirit within Jesus is Allah’s spirit, from Allah’s own essence; that whenever He wishes to bring something about, He enters one of His creatures and speaks through that creature’s tongue, commanding whatever He wills and forbidding whatever He wills; and that He is a spirit hidden from sight.

Jahm devised a similar argument and said to the Sumanī, “Do you not claim that there is a spirit within you?” He replied, “Yes.” Jahm asked, “Have you seen your spirit?” He replied, “No.” He asked, “Have you heard it speak?” He replied, “No.” He asked, “Have you perceived it with your senses?” He replied, “No.” Jahm said, “Likewise, no face of Allah is seen, no voice of His is heard, and no scent of His is detected. He is hidden from sight and is not in one place to the exclusion of another.”

Three verses were also found among the ambiguous passages of the Quran, namely His words:

“There is nothing like unto Him.” [al-Shūrā 11]

“And He is Allah in the heavens and on the earth.” [al-An‘ām 3]

“No vision can encompass Him, but He encompasses all vision.” [al-An‘ām 103]

He made these verses the foundation of his doctrine, interpreted the Quran contrary to its true meaning, and denied the truth of the hadiths of Allah’s Messenger, may Allah bless him and grant him peace. He claimed that anyone who described Allah with any attribute with which He described Himself in His Book, or which His Messenger reported concerning Him, was an unbeliever and one of those who liken Allah to His creation. Through his words he led many people astray, and some men among the followers of Abū Hanīfa and the followers of Amr ibn Ubayd adopted his teaching