nobler than what is lower. Wherever a living creature may be on the earth, the sky is above its head and the earth beneath its feet. The sky is therefore always in the direction aligned with its head, which is the noble direction. If, then, it is said that the Creator is exclusively in the direction that is noble relative to us, this assigns Him the very direction that is His by virtue of His own essence: the upper direction, outside the universe.

His entitlement to it thus rests on two grounds: one is that He must be distinct from the universe and outside it, and this is only possible if He is above the universe. He must also be the Most High, exalted above all things, and must therefore be above the universe. Moreover, relative to those within the universe, He is in the noblest of their relative directions—the upward direction, which is the direction of the sky relative to them, wherever they may be. These, then, are three corresponding and harmonious grounds, not conflicting ones as the author claims.

Fifth: He says:

“Moreover, if we imagined ourselves with our heads directed towards the earth, and the lights were in that direction while the direction above was dark, we would regard the earth as the nobler one.”

The essential point is that the direction of the sky is intrinsically the upper, spacious direction, whether we exist or not, whereas the direction of the earth is the lower, narrow direction. It is impossible for the Lord to be in the latter, because the lowest part of the earth is narrow and low. This would entail that Allah be encompassed by the smallest