that the earth is spherical and the celestial sphere is round. For them, above is a single direction, not multiple directions. In their view, the universe has only two directions: below, towards the centre within the earth, its lowest point; and above, towards the sky—that is, towards the outer circumference. Thus his statement, “All directions of the celestial sphere are above,” has no basis in reality. The celestial sphere therefore has only one direction, namely above; in their view, there are no multiple directions there.

Second: If the celestial sphere is elevated on all sides and lies above, while the earth lies below and its interior is the centre—the lowest point of all—and if the universe has only two directions, above and below, then their statement that Allah is above and over the Throne singles out for Him the higher direction rather than the lower. This singles out for Him the noble direction. Thus it becomes clear that the higher direction, above, is nobler than the lower direction, below.