so if it is absent, its counterpart can produce the effect. Yet whatever Allah Most High does not will does not come to pass.

These principles are very clear in particular causes, such as the giving and withholding, harm and benefit that come from people, whether kings or others. For, besides the fact that their hearts are in Allah’s hand—He turns them as He wills—and that their choices and the abilities through which they act are subject to frequent change, none of them can ever accomplish anything independently. Other causes beyond their power are indispensable, and the outcome comes about through their combined operation. Moreover, even when these causes are present, both on their part and on the part of others, they face opposing forces, obstacles, and resistance. Then, even when these causes exist and their impediments are absent, they may be dispensed with through their counterparts and equivalents: the intended result can be obtained through something else just as it can through them.

Even in the case of a cause that has no counterpart, such as the Messenger sent as the Seal of the Messengers, whose clear proofs and guidance people cannot do without, he himself acknowledges that he is Allah’s servant and Messenger, and that it is Allah who has granted him this. The same applies to the sun, the daylight resulting from its presence, and the night resulting from its absence: no one ever claims to attribute it to anyone other than Allah. This is why Allah’s intimate friend, peace be upon him, said:

“Indeed, Allah brings up the sun from the east, so bring it up from the west.” [al-Baqarah 258]

And He, Most High, said:

“Say, ‘Have you considered: if Allah were to make the night continuous for you until the Day of Resurrection, what god other than Allah could bring you light? Will you not then listen?’ {71} Say, ‘Have you considered: if Allah were to make the day