so he is not independent in giving; rather, he must have a partner and a helper. This is because nothing among created things is a complete cause. Nothing produces an effect on its own, nor does its action make the effect follow necessarily and unconditionally. Rather, opposing factors may prevent its effect.

Among the most obvious examples of what is called a cause is the sun, which illuminates and heats. Yet it illuminates only when something else faces it and receives its rays. Light and radiance thus arise through two causes: the sun and the body facing it upon which its rays fall. Moreover, the things that obstruct its light and rays, such as clouds, are plainly observable. Likewise, its heating depends on a recipient in which the heat subsists, and the things that prevent heating are plainly observable.

Not only does its action depend on a partner, while something else can prevent it, but there are also other causes besides it: heat comes from rays, but also from fire and motion. Likewise, illumination can come from fire. The same applies to the heat and light produced by fire, and the heat produced by motion: another cause is indispensable, such as the body that bears the heat, and there are obstacles that prevent heat from arising.

Thus, no mercy comes about through existing causes without there also being something among created causes that can withhold it; and whatever comes about through them in the way of