the heavens and the earth.” [al-Tawbah 36]

And He, Exalted is He, says:

“He causes the dawn to break and has made the night for rest, and the sun and moon for reckoning. That is the determination of the Almighty, the All-Knowing.” {96} [al-An‘ām 96]

And He, Exalted is He, says:

“It is He who made the sun a radiant light and the moon a light, and determined its phases so that you may know the number of years and the reckoning. Allah created this only in truth. He explains the signs for people who know.” {5} [Yūnus 5]

And He, Exalted is He, says:

“And a sign for them is the night: We strip the daylight from it, and suddenly they are in darkness. {37} And the sun runs on to its appointed resting place. That is the determination of the Almighty, the All-Knowing. {38} And We have determined phases for the moon until it returns like an old date stalk. {39} Neither can the sun overtake the moon, nor can the night outstrip the day. Each floats in an orbit.” {40} [Yā Sīn 37–40]

Similar passages occur elsewhere in the Quran. There is no doubt that times are measured by the light of the sun and moon that people observe. Through this, the ends of periods of time are distinguished from one another, and the number of years and the reckoning are known, whereby what is earlier and what is later can be identified.

Thus, when something is said to be earlier in time, this means that its precedence corresponds to the precedence of time, and that its precedence is recognized through the precedence of time. It does not mean that its precedence is caused by the precedence of time. For there is no more justification for making the precedence of time the cause of its precedence than for making its precedence the cause of the precedence of time.

On any particular day, the sun and moon rise, as do the stars, and other motions also occur. And among