all having the same relation to Him, so that what is above heaven is just like what is below it. According to this view, meeting Him, ascending to Him, being returned to Him, standing before Him, being presented before Him, and similar matters indicated by the Quran and necessarily known to be part of Islam would all be impossible.

For this reason, they take what these verses ascribe to Him as referring instead to certain created things—His reward, His punishment, or something else. Or they interpret these expressions as referring to attaining knowledge of Him, and offer other such interpretations of the same kind as those of the Qarmatians.

Imam Ahmad said: “If you wish to know that the Jahmī is lying about Allah Most High when he claims that He is everywhere and is not in one place to the exclusion of another, say to him, ‘Did Allah not exist when nothing else existed?’ He will say, ‘Yes.’ Then say to him, ‘When He created something, did He create it within Himself or outside Himself?’ He will then be left with three possible answers, one of which he must adopt.