in every nation a name by which they call Him. Naming presupposes a conception of what is named, for no one names anything without knowing it. Then, upon hearing that name, a person’s innate disposition leads him to accept the existence of the One named, without demanding proof of His existence. He accepts this just as he accepts the names of other things apprehended through his senses and intellect, such as the sun, the moon, one and two. Indeed, this is more complete and more noble. The evidence for this is plentiful, but this is not the place to discuss it.

Nevertheless, methods of rational inquiry yield knowledge and understanding. There is no incompatibility between something being known self-evidently and necessarily and there also being proofs for it. These proofs are of two kinds:

The first consists of signs, as Allah mentions in the Quran. A sign is evidence pointing to Him specifically, not to something common to Him and others. Created beings themselves and what they contain—that is, their very existence in external reality—necessarily entail the existence of the Lord. This is a sign of Him, evidence pointing to Him, and testimony to His existence specifically, not to something common to Him and others.

The second consists of drawing comparisons and inferential reasoning. This is of two kinds, the first of which is