on earth. It is well known that when a powerful restraining force opposes a motivating impulse, that impulse cannot be in the same condition as one unopposed by any restraint.

As for the elementary mathematical and physical truths mentioned—such as knowing that one is half of two and that a body cannot occupy two places at once—neither the impulse toward this knowledge nor the restraint against it is strong within the soul. Thus, you find that most people in whose minds this knowledge becomes established have engaged in some reflection and investigation concerning it. You also find that a person’s need for this kind of knowledge arises from a particular defect in his intellect or a purpose arising within him.

Knowledge of God, however, is far greater and nobler. It is necessary for human beings, both as knowledge and as an inclination of the will: they were created with this innate disposition. This necessary knowledge and inclination are therefore far more prevalent within them than that other knowledge. Whatever opposes them must be powerful: either a false belief, such as that of the Jahmiyyah who resort to reinterpretation, who have not obstinately defied reason and have no intention of opposing religion; or a powerful, corrupt will, like that of Pharaoh and his people, concerning whom Allah said