the verbal expression and the gesture. These expressions are not assigned to any particular thing; rather, they denote the general class of things that may be pointed to. The particular referent is identified by the gesture together with the verbal expression. Likewise, the definite article al- is used for nouns whose referents are known. Yet a thing must already be known independently of that article, either through prior knowledge or prior mention.

The same applies to something made definite through direct address, for calling and addressing are among the means of making a referent definite. A definite vocative noun takes the ending -u, whereas an indefinite one takes the accusative ending -an. Thus, someone calling out to an unspecified man says, “Yā rajulan (O man),” as when a blind person says, “O man, take my hand.” Someone addressing a particular man says, “Yā rajulu (O man),” as in the words of Moses, peace be upon him: “My garment, O stone! My garment, O stone!”

The person calling out points to this particular addressee, intending that very individual. This differs from the unspecified person indicated by an indefinite noun, as in “O man, take my hand,” where no particular individual is being pointed to. Thus, identification through direct address is established inwardly by the caller’s intention and outwardly by his gesture.