these are not predicated through verbal equivocation alone, but univocally. They also admit degrees of priority, for their meanings apply more properly to Allah Most High, while being literally applicable to both. Nevertheless, they do not say that what these names signify as befitting Allah Most High when applied to Him is identical to what befits others, nor that He resembles His creation in His existence, life, knowledge, or power. Nor do they say that He or anyone else has, in external reality, an existence distinct from their respective realities existing externally.

Rather, when the term is used without qualification and abstracted from the characteristics distinguishing either referent, it signifies a shared element. Such usage is not confined to Allah’s names, nor was the term assigned this abstract sense in the language. It is mentioned in this way only in contexts where it is stripped of particular characteristics, as in debate for purposes that require this. Its abstraction from those characteristics is thus merely posited, just as things that have not existed may be posited. It then signifies an element shared by Muslims. But that shared element is not the entire reality of either as it exists externally. For when the term “existent” is abstracted to signify an existent without qualification, existence without qualification has reality only in the mind. As for