is coextensive with it or more general than it, then every existent can be seen, since existence, or whatever is coextensive with it or more general than it, belongs to every existent. If, however, seeing is possible in virtue of something more specific than existence, and this is something included in the Necessary Existent, then He too can be seen, because its contrary exists—namely, the attribute found in both the Necessary Existent and others. If the Necessary Existent does not fall within its scope, then everything other than the Necessary Existent is originated, according to the adherents of the religious traditions: it was previously nonexistent and is, indisputably, susceptible to nonexistence. Thus, whatever makes seeing possible would necessarily require nonexistence or susceptibility to it as a condition. This is impossible, because neither nonexistence nor susceptibility to nonexistence can contribute to the cause of positive realities.

Applying this argument consistently requires affirming every positive reality. On this basis, it may be said that all imperfections from which He, the Exalted, must be declared free are excluded precisely because they entail nonexistence. Existence, considered simply as existence, is perfection and therefore cannot be denied of Him. This approach accords with the view that perfection consists in existence and its concomitants, and that this is good, whereas evil consists in the absence of existence and the absence of its perfection.

Through this approach, we can affirm all the attributes, such as hearing, sight, and speech, for these are positive realities involving no nonexistence. The imperfections opposed to them, by contrast, involve nonexistence: the absence of these very attributes. The statements of the early generations and the imams accord with this approach, as they declared Him free of imperfections whereby He would resemble what is nonexistent or lifeless things devoid