two groups who say that He has no spatial measure: one says that He is a body, while the other denies that He is a body. Moreover, various groups among the Jahmiyyah say that He is present in His essence in every place. The imams and scholars have reported this view from the Jahmiyyah and refuted it. Other groups say that He is present in His essence in every place and that He is upon the Throne, as al-Ashʿarī reported from Zuhayr and Abū Muʿādh.

Furthermore, these proponents of union state this in the most explicit terms imaginable, even identifying Him with dogs, pigs, and impurities themselves. They do not say that He intermingles with these things; rather, His existence is identical with theirs. Although this is among the gravest forms of unbelief, the point is that his brethren among those who say that Allah is not above the Throne have said all this and more. He must therefore refute their position using the methods he himself follows; otherwise, his position is no sounder than theirs. Rather,