these organs, nor to any difference in those directions’ attributes. Rather, this particular positioning has no effect whatsoever on the directions themselves. It is due to a feature of the human being himself, not of the directions.

The eleventh argument: Even if space and direction are assumed to be something existent, we do not concede the second premise, namely his statement: “What is designated by space and direction is something whose existence is independent of whatever occupies and settles within it, whereas whatever is situated in space and direction depends upon space and direction. For it is rationally impossible for something capable of being in space to exist without being situated in a direction.”

This is because the existence of anything independent of Allah is impossible. Everything other than Him depends upon Him, and He is the Creator, Lord, and Sovereign of everything.

His statement, “What is designated by space and direction is something whose existence is independent of whatever occupies and settles within it,” is a universal syllogism in which he puts Allah on a par with the lowliest created things. For when weak bodies, whether inanimate matter or animals—such as stones, clods of earth, mosquitoes, and the like—are in a place or a region of space, there is no doubt