divinity for created beings other than Him and affirming it for Him alone—instances that can only be counted with considerable effort—as in His words:

“So do not invoke another deity alongside Allah, lest you be among those punished.” {213} [al-Shu‘arā’ 213]

“And do not invoke another deity alongside Allah. There is no deity except Him. Everything will perish except His Face.” [al-Qasas 88]

“Lord of the East and the West; there is no deity except Him, so take Him as the Disposer of your affairs.” {9} [al-Muzzammil 9]

“Our Lord is the Lord of the heavens and the earth. We will never invoke any deity besides Him, for then we would certainly have spoken outrageously.” {14} “These people of ours have taken gods besides Him. Why do they not produce clear evidence for them? Who does greater wrong than one who fabricates a lie against Allah?” {15} [al-Kahf 14–15]

“Do not set up another deity alongside Allah, lest you sit condemned and forsaken.” {22} [al-Isrā’ 22]

“So know that there is no deity except Allah.” [Muhammad 19]

“Indeed, whenever they were told, ‘There is no deity except Allah,’ they grew arrogant.” {35} [al-Sāffāt 35]

There are other passages like these affirming oneness in divinity. None but Him may be worshipped as a deity. Divinity entails His exclusive right to worship and supplication; it does not mean the power to originate creation, as al-Ash‘arī is reported to have held. That is lordship, which the polytheists acknowledged.

In this connection, a distinguished scholar with philosophical inclinations once addressed me. He began saying that the philosophers profess monotheism and are among the greatest monotheists, ranking them above the Christians in monotheism. I explained to him that this was not so; rather, the Christians were better than they in monotheism, and that the philosophers were polytheists