one like Him or equal to Him in these attributes. It also encompasses monotheism in will and action: worshipping Him alone, without partner.

Allah revealed the two surahs of sincerity: “Say, ‘O disbelievers’” {1} [al-Kāfirūn 1], and “Say, ‘He is Allah, the One’” {1} [al-Ikhlās 1]. The first concerns monotheism in action; hence its declaration, “I do not worship what you worship” {2} [al-Kāfirūn 2], is a performative verbal sentence. The other concerns monotheism in knowledge, namely His words, “Say, ‘He is Allah, the One’” {1} [al-Ikhlās 1]. Hence its declaration is a declarative nominal sentence. Speech is either performative or declarative: declarations express knowledge, whereas performative utterances express will. Thus Allah Most High says:

“Your God is one God. There is no deity except Him, the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful.” {163} [al-Baqarah 163]

And He says:

“Say, ‘It is only revealed to me that your God is one God. Will you then submit?’” {108} [al-Anbiyā’ 108]

And He says:

“Say, ‘I am only a human being like you. It is revealed to me that your God is one God.’” [al-Kahf 110]

And He says:

“Allah has said, ‘Do not take two gods. He is only one God.’” [al-Nahl 51]

And He says:

“Has he made the gods into one God? This is truly an astonishing thing!” {5} “And their leaders went forth, saying, ‘Go on, and remain steadfast to your gods.’” [Sād 5-6]

And in the Quran there are instances of negating