and Shiism. Then, toward the end of the Companions’ era, the Qadariyyah and Murji’ah emerged. After the leading Successors had passed away, the Jahmiyyah emerged. Then, when the books of the Persians and Romans were translated into Arabic, imitation of the Persians and Romans appeared. Indian books reached the Muslims through the Persians, while Greek books reached them through the Romans. Thus emerged the heretical Bātiniyyah (esotericists), who constructed their doctrine from the teachings of the Magians and Greeks, alongside their outward profession of Shiism. The Qarmatians of Bahrain were more extreme in their negation and disbelief; their disbelief was of the same kind as that of