as a noun, and the noun it qualifies may appropriately be omitted, as with “the Muslim,” “the unbeliever,” “the righteous,” “the wicked,” “the distant,” “the near,” “the witness,” “the ruler,” and similar expressions. Here, omitting the qualified noun is better than mentioning it.

This distinction is preferable to the blanket prohibition adopted by those who disallow such omission without distinguishing between cases.

Further evidence that waswās is an adjective rather than a verbal noun is that, as explained above, the pattern fa‘lāl occurs more commonly as an adjective than as a verbal noun. Had a verbal noun been intended, it would have been preceded by dhū (“possessor of”), eliminating ambiguity and establishing its status as a verbal noun. When an expression admits two equally plausible interpretations, some contextual indication is needed to determine which is intended. How much more so when its adjectival use is more common than its use as a verbal noun!

This differs from sawm (“fasting”), fitr (“breaking the fast”), and similar expressions, which are verbal nouns that cannot be confused with adjectives. When they are used adjectivally, it is understood either that a preceding governing noun has been omitted, or that the verbal noun is being treated as an adjective for emphasis. These are the two ways of analysing such usage.

It is therefore established that al-waswās is Satan himself: it denotes an entity, not a verbal noun. And Allah knows best.

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As for al-khannās (“the one who repeatedly retreats”), it follows the pattern fa‘‘āl, from khanasa, yakhnusu, meaning to withdraw from sight and conceal oneself.

An example is the statement of Abū Hurayra: “The Prophet ﷺ met me on one of the streets of Medina while I was in a state of major ritual impurity, so I slipped away from him.”

The word properly means disappearing after having been visible, not merely being concealed. This is why the stars are described by it in Allah’s words (81:15):

“So I swear by the retreating stars.”

Qatāda said: “These are the stars: they appear at night and retreat by day, disappearing from sight.” Likewise, ‘Alī, may Allah be pleased with him, said: “They are the stars, which retreat by day and cannot be seen.”