and from giving testimony; this was Sahnūn’s ruling. His statement should be understood as clarifying the permission to accept their testimony given in the Book of Clientage and Inheritance in al-Mudawwana: they may not have entered the lands of polytheism voluntarily, but rather been driven back there by the wind while bound elsewhere. Even if his discussion concerned people who had entered voluntarily, perhaps he permitted their testimony only after they had repented and their uprightness had become evident. This is a possible interpretation of his statement—Allah’s blessings and peace be upon him—for it is difficult to conceive that the testimony of someone who travelled to a land at war with the Muslims for trade and worldly gain could be accepted when he knew that this was unlawful for him and that the laws of polytheism would apply to him. A witness’s integrity is impugned and his testimony rejected for less than this.
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The Muslim ruler must therefore prevent people from entering lands at war with the Muslims for trade, establishing watchposts and armed outposts along the routes so that no one can find a way to do so. This is especially necessary if he fears that they might carry there goods that may not lawfully be sold to those people because they strengthen them against the Muslims by assisting them in their wars.
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As for buying, selling and trading with people at war with the Muslims when they come under a guarantee of safe conduct, this is permissible. It is narrated that Abd al-Rahmān ibn Abī Bakr al-Siddīq—may Allah be pleased with him—said:
“While we were with the Messenger of Allah—Allah’s blessings and peace be upon him—a tall, shaggy-haired polytheist came driving a flock of sheep. The Messenger of Allah—Allah’s blessings and peace be upon him—asked him, ‘Are they for sale, or are they a donation or a gift?’ He replied, ‘They are for sale.’ So he—Allah’s blessings and peace be upon him—bought a sheep from the flock.”
Al-Bukhārī—may Allah Most High have mercy on him—placed this hadith under the heading: “Buying and Selling with Polytheists and People at War with the Muslims.”
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However, they must not be sold anything that assists them in their wars, such as horses, weapons or iron, nor anything with which they intimidate the Muslims in battle, such as banners and the garments they wear in war to vaunt themselves over the Muslims. The same applies to copper, since they make drums from it with which to intimidate the Muslims. Nor may a Christian slave be sold to them, for he would serve as a guide against the Muslims and a source of vulnerability for them.