figurative. This is the sounder view, Allah willing, because Allah Most High is the One swearing by these things. He may swear by whatever He wills of His creation, elevating them above other things and drawing attention to the signs of His craftsmanship within them. No created being may therefore use this as evidence that swearing by anything other than Allah Most High is permissible.

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As for prohibited oaths, these consist of swearing by false gods, by al-Lāt and al-ʿUzzā, by any idol worshipped besides Allah, by a church, by a house of worship, or by anything similar. Whoever swears by something intends to venerate it, and venerating these things constitutes disbelief in Allah Most High.

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The Different Forms of Divorce

Divorce falls into two categories: unqualified divorce and divorce subject to a qualification. Unqualified divorce is a man’s saying to his wife, “You are divorced,” or using similar expressions, whether explicit or indirect.

There are three views concerning which expressions constitute explicit divorce. The first is that only the word “divorce” is explicit, while all other expressions are indirect, such as “You are free,” “You are released,” “You are free to go your own way,” and similar expressions. This is the position of ʿAbd al-Wahhāb. The second is that all these expressions constitute explicit divorce, although some are clearer than others. This is the position of Abū al-Hasan ibn al-Qassār. The third is that explicit divorce consists of the terms Allah mentions in His Book: divorce, release, and separation. This is the position of al-Shāfiʿī.

There are also three views concerning what makes divorce take effect. The first is that it takes effect through [intention alone, without any pronouncement. This is Ashhab’s report from Mālik in the Book of Oaths Involving Divorce. The second is that it takes effect through pronouncement alone, without intention]. The third is that it takes effect only when pronouncement and intention are combined. This concerns the matter between a man and Allah. As for outward judicial rulings, the scholars agree that a man is judged according to the explicit or indirect expressions of divorce he has uttered. He is not believed if he claims that he neither intended it nor