by travel, illness, and fear, as occurs with many obligatory and recommended acts. Likewise, circumstances may make obligatory or recommended what is not regularly obligatory or recommended.

Thus, with respect to their prescription and waiver, acts of worship fall into two categories: regular and circumstantial. This applies equally to the establishment of an obligation or recommendation and to its waiver. Minds err only when they treat what is circumstantial as regular, or suppose that what is regular never changes under any circumstances. Whoever is guided to distinguish between regular and circumstantial prescriptions will find many of these difficulties resolved.

[Chapter on Recitation behind the Imam]

Chapter

As for recitation behind the imam, people hold two extreme positions and a middle position. Some disapprove of reciting behind the imam, with some going so far as to deem it prohibited, whether in silent or audible prayers. This is the predominant position among the people of Kufa and their followers, such as the adherents of Abū Hanīfa. Others strongly emphasize recitation behind the imam, to the extent that they require the recitation of al-Fātiha even when one can hear the imam reciting. This is the later of al-Shāfiī’s two views and is also held by another group. Others instruct the follower to recite during silent prayers, during the imam’s pauses in audible prayers, and when he is too far away to hear the imam. As for one who is near enough to hear the imam’s recitation, they instruct him to listen attentively to his imam, thereby treating listening as taking the place of recitation. This is the position of the majority, including Mālik, Ahmad, and other jurists of the major centers and jurists versed in transmitted reports. The practice of most of the Companions supports this position, and most of the hadiths concur upon it.

This disagreement resembles their disagreement concerning the follower’s prayer: is it based upon the imam’s prayer, or does each of them pray for himself, as was previously