by nonexistence has a beginning to which its existence can be traced back. Anything whose existence has such a beginning cannot possibly be said to be infinite.

Second: The existence of each would be conditional upon its cause existing before it; it would not exist until its cause existed. The same applies to its cause in relation to that cause’s own cause, and so on.

If the series is said to be infinite, the condition for existence can never be reached, and none of its members can exist.

This is like saying: ‘I will not give you a dirham unless another dirham precedes it.’ Since giving that dirham is conditional upon giving another dirham before it, and the same applies to every dirham posited without end, giving any dirham would be impossible.

Third: To posit a succession of causes and effects entails that a cause acts upon its effect after it has ceased to exist. Yet it is impossible for the nonexistent to act upon the existent.”

He said:

“These arguments have no proof to support them.

As for the first, the fact that nonexistence precedes each individual member does not entail