theologians such as Abū al-Husayn, al-Rāzī, and others; it is also the meaning conveyed by the Quran and Sunnah and stated by the leading scholars of the Sunnah.

Thus, the philosophers’ positions on Allah’s knowledge number four—indeed, five, six, or even seven. There are more besides: the position stated by Ibn Sīnā, the position chosen by Ibn Rushd, and the position chosen by Abū al-Barakāt.

These last two positions are the two held by Muslim thinkers. As for the positions of Aristotle and Ibn Sīnā, no Muslim could hold them.

This is why al-Ghazālī and others declared them unbelievers on this account, let alone the leading Muslim scholars, such as Mālik, al-Shāfiʿī, and Ahmad. These scholars declared the extreme Qadarites unbelievers for denying His knowledge of particular acts before they occur. What, then, of someone who denies His knowledge of all particulars, both before and after they exist?!

Al-Suhrawardī, who was executed, held another position, which we shall relate later, Allah willing. Al-Tūsī likewise held a similar position, whose substance is that knowledge is not an attribute of His, but is identical with the things known.

[Ibn Malkā’s discussion in al-Muʿtabar of the question of Allah’s nonexistence, and Ibn Taymiyyah’s commentary on it]

Abū al-Barakāt said:

“As for His awareness and knowledge, many scholars, both later and ancient, have differed concerning it.”

He means the philosophers engaged in rational inquiry, not the followers of the prophets.

He said:

“Some of them said: ‘He has no awareness or knowledge of anything other than His own essence and the attributes He possesses by virtue of His essence.’

“Others said: ‘Rather, He knows His own essence and all His creatures, at