over the other. If both possessed power, each god would necessarily take away what he had created. For the one who prevails is the God who is worshipped, so there could be no other god alongside Him. Rather, whatever is called a god would be His possession and His worshipper.

They acknowledge this, but He has made clear to them the invalidity of worshipping a created being who himself worships another. As He says:

“Say: If there were other gods alongside Him, as they claim, they would have sought a way to the Lord of the Throne.” [al-Isrā’: 42]

And He says:

“Say: Call upon those you claim besides Him. They have no power to remove harm from you or to transfer it elsewhere. * Those whom they invoke themselves seek a means of access to their Lord, each seeking to be nearest to Him. They hope for His mercy and fear His punishment. Indeed, your Lord’s punishment is to be feared.” [al-Isrā’: 56–57]

For He, glorified be He, forbids the association of partners with Him that actually occurs: taking something other than Him as a god, even though the polytheists acknowledge that it is a created god who worships the supreme God. Hence He says:

“If there were other gods alongside Him, as they claim.” [al-Isrā’: 42]

He also makes clear the impossibility of there being alongside Him a god independent of Him, saying:

“And some of them would have prevailed over others.” [al-Mu’minūn: 91]

And:

“Each god would have taken away what he had created.” [al-Mu’minūn: 91]

These matters are discussed at length elsewhere, and scholars have addressed them in their books.

Likewise, what this philosopher has mentioned has also been stated by a number of speculative thinkers. They explain that, even supposing the two agree, the effect produced by one cannot be the effect produced by the other. All rational people agree that a single effect cannot be produced by two agents.

But the supposition