unlike its use in relation to beings who are not morally accountable, as in the Prophet’s words, peace and blessings be upon him, to Mālik ibn ‘Awf al-Jushamī:

“Are you an owner of camels or an owner of sheep?”

Likewise, people speak of the owner of a garment or a house. This usage does not imply that these things worship anyone other than Allah, for that is impossible for them: Allah has fashioned them with a nature that does not change. Morally accountable beings, by contrast, can worship others besides Allah, as those among the jinn and humankind who associate partners with Him have done. This designation was therefore prohibited in relation to them, to fully uphold the monotheism with which Allah sent His messengers and revealed His Books.

Thus, nothing necessitates the existence of effects except Allah’s will alone. Whatever Allah wills comes to pass, even if no one else wills it; and whatever He does not will cannot come to pass, even if all creation wills it.

[Section. Return to Ibn Rushd’s discussion in Manāhij al-adilla (The Methods of Proof) and Ibn Taymiyya’s commentary on it]

Section.

Return to Ibn Rushd’s discussion in Manāhij al-adilla (The Methods of Proof) and Ibn Taymiyya’s commentary on it

Once it is understood that no created thing can independently produce a result or cause an effect, it follows that no created thing is in any way a lord over another. Rather, every created being has a partner in its action, and it may also encounter an impediment. This is among the proofs of the existence of the Maker, exalted is He, and of His oneness, as has been pointed out elsewhere.

The point here is that it is self-evident that two agents cannot each independently perform a single act, nor can one effect have been produced by each of two agents, nor can the very