[Summary of the Refutation of the Argument from Causal Action]
The response to the argument from causal action—which is also called creation and origination, bringing into being and necessitation, entailment and causality, causal efficacy, and the like—may be summarized as follows:
Causal action upon things that come into being either has real existence or does not. If it has real existence, it must either be beginningless or itself come into being. On every supposition, the philosophers’ argument is invalid.
If causal action has no real existence, the invalidity is obvious: it would not then entail that the effect is beginningless, since nonexistence does not entail anything existent. Moreover, if an agent can produce things after not having produced them, without any really existent causal action, then the world could come into being without any really existent causal action. This is the position of the Ashʿarīs and those who agree with them among the followers of Mālik, al-Shāfiʿī, and Ahmad, as well as many of the Muʿtazilīs.
If causal action has real existence, it must either be beginningless or itself come into being. If it is beginningless, one may maintain that the effect must follow the causal action without an intervening interval, and that what is brought into being must likewise follow the act of bringing it into being; or one may deny that this is necessary. Alternatively, one may maintain that simultaneity is necessary, or that an interval between the effect and the causal action is possible.
If that immediate succession is held to be necessary, then it is self-evident that there are things in the world that come into being. The causal action producing each of them therefore cannot be beginningless; rather, there must be causal actions that themselves come into being. It is then impossible for anything in the world to be beginningless, because the effect follows the causal action, whereas what is beginningless cannot be preceded by anything else.
If it is said that the effect is simultaneous with its cause, so that both exist at the same time, this entails that nothing in the world comes into being—which contradicts observation.