another, and there is no stationary body that we cannot move, either as a whole or in its parts, as with very large bodies.

We say that the eternal cannot cease to exist because its existence is necessary in every state, and whatever necessarily exists in every state cannot cease to exist.

We say that its existence is necessary in every state because it has always existed. Its existence must therefore be either contingent or necessary. If its existence were contingent, its existence would have no priority over its nonexistence without an agent. Yet it is impossible for the eternal to be brought into existence by an agent, because an agent is understood to be that which brings something into being from nonexistence, whereas the eternal has no state of nonexistence from which an agent could bring it into being. Thus, the existence of the eternal is necessarily established. There is no basis for holding its existence necessary in one state rather than another. It is therefore established that its existence is necessary in every state, making its nonexistence impossible.”

He then set out the second principle, which is the crucial one. He said:

“If it is asked: ‘What grounds have you for denying that past temporally originated events have no beginning, and that a body need not be temporally originated if it does not precede them?’

The reply is: If every individual event has a beginning, it is impossible for their totality to have no beginning, since that totality is nothing other than its individual members. Likewise, it is impossible for every individual among the Zanj to be black without all of them being black,