and later ones, down to the works of al-Rāzī, al-Āmidī, and others like them. Yet these works do not present the true position on the fundamental universal and theological principles. Rather, whenever they discuss an issue and people’s positions on it, either all the positions are wrong, or they mention the correct position in general terms—for example, affirming the Creator, that there is no god but Him, and that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah.

Yet they do not give this position its due, whether in understanding it or assenting to it. They neither properly establish the reality these statements affirm nor present the evidence demonstrating the truth. They may elaborate on particular subsidiary issues that offer no benefit on their own and may not even be needed.

As for the loftiest aims and noblest goals—knowing Allah Most High and believing in Him, His angels, His Books, His Messengers, and the Last Day—they do not understand these as they should and as the Messenger, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, explained them. Nor do they present anything concerning them that accords with authentic transmitted evidence or clear reason.

Ibn Rushd the grandson is one of these authors. Thus, when he discussed the groups within the Muslim community and divided them into four categories—the Bātiniyya, the Hashwiyya, the Mu‘tazila, and the Ash‘ariyya—he proceeded