by reasoning from the human self, without also needing to establish that bodies have a beginning in time—an approach also followed by al-Ash‘arī.

Abū al-Khattāb said:

“The opponent argued from the apparent meaning of verses such as His saying, Exalted is He:

‘We never punish until We have sent a messenger.’

He did not say: ‘until We have endowed people with reason.’ And His saying, Exalted is He:

‘Messengers bringing good tidings and warnings, so that people would have no argument against Allah after the messengers.’

He did not say: ‘after reason.’ And His saying:

‘Had We destroyed them with a punishment before him, they would have said, “Our Lord, why did You not send us a messenger, so that we might have followed Your signs before we were humiliated and disgraced?”’

And other verses besides these. Thus He made both the establishment of the case against people and their punishment dependent on the messengers. It follows that neither is established through reason.”

He also said:

“The reply is that Allah sent the messengers to enjoin revealed laws and rulings; to warn people that the Hour is near and that they will be recompensed for their deeds; to give them good tidings that obedience and gratitude for blessings will bring the continuation and increase of those blessings in the abode of eternity; to warn them of severe punishment for disobedience; and to serve as witnesses to their deeds.

Allah, Exalted is He, said:

‘Indeed, We have sent you as a witness, a bearer of good tidings, and a warner.’

And He said:

‘How will it be, then, when We bring a witness from every nation and bring you as a witness against these people?’

All this comes after they have come to know Allah through reason and refuted the doubts that lead to denial