a person is naturally compelled to know himself, to know his Maker, and to know that his Maker is distinct from himself. All other religious knowledge, however, is acquired.”

He says:

“Another group, including Abū al-Hudhayl al-‘Allāf, said that awareness of knowledge and of the evidence leading to knowledge of the Maker arises necessarily. Any knowledge arising thereafter is general knowledge obtained through inference; this is knowledge attained by choice and acquisition.”

He says:

“Another group, including Bishr ibn al-Mu‘tamir, said that a person’s knowledge of himself is neither his own act nor his acquisition, nor is he compelled to it. Rather, it is originated for him and newly created in his heart. Knowledge perceived through the senses, whether concerning religion or other matters, arises necessarily, whereas knowledge gained through inference is acquired. Both kinds, however, may arise necessarily, and both may be acquired.”

He says:

“Another group of the Mu‘tazilah said that people are compelled to such knowledge in all circumstances and have no control over it.”

He says:

“Another group of the Mu‘tazilah, including al-Jāhiz, said that knowledge of Allah arises necessarily in developing natural dispositions, following rational inquiry and inference.”