al-Raqāshī, the Sufis, and many of the Shia, maintain that all religious knowledge is attained through immediate certainty.

“They then differed among themselves. One group, including Sālih Qubba, said that Allah makes knowledge of His religion arise necessarily, initiating and creating it in the hearts of those who have reached maturity, without any preceding cause, investigation, or rational inquiry. This is also the position of a group of the Shia.

“Another group of the Shia said that Allah creates this knowledge in the hearts of those who have reached maturity, but that it is impossible for Him to do so unless thought and rational inquiry precede it. Allah then grants knowledge to whomever He loves, just as He grants a child following intercourse. He may, however, withhold knowledge despite rational inquiry, just as He may withhold a child despite intercourse.

“Another group of the Shia said that created beings are compelled to acquire knowledge through causes. When knowledge results from these causes, they both choose that knowledge and are compelled to it at the same time. A person is thus compelled by the cause, yet chooses through volition.

“A group of the Mu‘tazilah who hold that knowledge arises necessarily said that Allah does not directly create any of the affairs of religion or this world, or knowledge of either. Rather, these arise after volition, by nature. Allah created His servants and prepared them to acquire volition; whatever follows it, whether rational inquiry or anything else, occurs by nature and is attributed to the human being only figuratively and in an extended sense.”

He says:

“Another group of the Mu‘tazilah, including Ghaylān ibn Marwān, said that