and inference, and attributed this view to scholars generally, as also mentioned by Judge Abū Ya'lā, Ibn 'Aqīl, Abū al-Khattāb, and others.

He said:

“What Allah has made obligatory upon individuals is of two kinds. The first comprises those things without which faith cannot be complete: knowing Allah and His oneness, knowing that He is the Maker of all things and that all are His servants, and matters of this kind.

“This is equally binding upon scholars and laypeople. By ‘scholar’ we mean someone who has gained insight and training, can distinguish proof from specious argument, has attained profound mastery of the fields of rigorous inquiry in pursuit of knowledge, and has undertaken to refute the objections of disputants with the truth, in a manner that strengthens confidence, supported through understanding by certainty and knowledge.

“By ‘layperson’ we mean someone distinguished from specialists in their attainment of knowledge and depth of learning. Such a person is called a layperson because specialist scholars are few in number compared with everyone else. In every age, specialist scholars are a handful of individuals, whereas other people are more widespread and more numerous. Thus, someone whose knowledge is limited is called a layperson and counted among the general public.

“We do not mean by ‘layperson’ someone who has no knowledge whatsoever.

“Once this is established, all ordinary people are believers who know Allah in their beliefs and religious commitment; they do not merely accept on authority any of the matters we have mentioned above.”

He said:

“Certain groups among the Mu'tazila and the Qadariyya held that only scholars know Allah. As for ordinary people, their faith is not deemed valid, nor are they deemed to know Allah.”