the known peoples, it nevertheless occurs to many people, and some profess it: either outwardly but not inwardly—as was the case with Pharaoh and others like him—or both inwardly and outwardly, as Allah relates in Abraham’s debate—may Allah’s blessings and peace be upon him—with the man who disputed with him concerning his Lord, and in Moses’ debate—may Allah’s blessings and peace be upon him—with Pharaoh.

Yet this does not preclude knowledge of Him from being firmly rooted in innate human nature and established with necessary certainty. For this is a form of sophistry, a condition found in many people, whether deliberately or mistakenly.

Many people dispute numerous self-evident propositions and truths known innately, concerning sensory experience and arithmetic, as well as matters concerning God. Whoever reflects on the views people report others as holding in the natural and mathematical sciences will encounter astonishing and extraordinary things.

The opinions and desires that occur to the children of Adam are beyond reckoning, for they vary enormously: no other created beings differ more widely in merit. According to one group, the best among them are the best of all created beings; according to another, they are among the best. The worst among them are the worst of all created beings, or among the worst.