it comes to exist. Everything other than the eternal Creator, whose existence is necessary in itself, depends on something else; thus, none of it suffices to bring an event into being or give existence to a contingent thing.

The polytheism of most Arabs was not of this kind. Rather, they acknowledged that Allah is the Creator, Lord, and Owner of everything. Their polytheism belonged to the second kind. Affirming Allah’s oneness in the second respect entails affirming it in the first, but not vice versa.

The second kind is associating partners with Allah in worship. Its opposite is affirming His oneness in worship: worshipping Allah alone, without any partner. Although the polytheists acknowledged Him as the Lord of everything, they adopted gods through whose worship they sought to obtain benefits and ward off harm. They took them as intermediaries to bring them closer to Him, and as intercessors whose intercession they sought with Him.

Yet these beings are among His creatures. They have no power to benefit or harm anyone except by His permission. Thus, whatever is sought from them can only come about by His permission. He, glorified is He, has neither commanded the worship of anyone besides Him nor appointed these beings as intercessors or intermediaries.

Rather, He, Most High, has said:

“Ask those of Our messengers whom We sent before you: Did We appoint any gods besides the Most Merciful to be worshipped?”

He, Most High, said:

“We never sent a messenger before you without revealing to him: There is no god but Me, so worship Me.”

And He, Most High, said:

“They worship besides Allah what can neither harm nor benefit them, and say, ‘These are our intercessors with Allah.’ Say, ‘Are you informing Allah of something He does not know in