without rational inquiry; for anyone who has attained knowledge of Allah without rational inquiry, such inquiry is not obligatory.”

Several leading speculative theologians, among the followers of al-Ash‘arī and others, likewise mentioned this. They stated that knowledge of Allah Most High may arise directly, without inference. Although they maintain that rational inquiry is obligatory, they nevertheless affirm the faith of ordinary people: either because they have attained such immediate knowledge, because they have undertaken sufficient rational inquiry to attain knowledge, or because faith is valid even without knowledge. They reported that all of them acknowledged the validity of ordinary people’s faith.

The Discussion of Abū al-Hasan al-Tabarī, al-Kiyā

[The Discussion of Abū al-Hasan al-Tabarī, al-Kiyā]

Among those who mentioned this was Abū al-Hasan al-Tabarī, known as al-Kiyā, in his book on speculative theology—or one of his peers among the disciples of the master Abū al-Ma‘ālī. He said:

“If it is asked: ‘If you maintain that rational inquiry is obligatory and knowledge is obligatory, what do you say about ordinary people and all others who neither engage in rational inquiry nor possess knowledge? Are they believers or unbelievers?’

We reply: Scholars of the fundamentals of religion have differed on this.

As for Abū Hāshim, the head of the Qadariyyah, he adopted an untenable position on this issue, saying: ‘Anyone who does not know Allah is an unbeliever, not a believer.’ He also said: ‘Knowledge is obligatory. If it is not attained, its opposite—non-recognition—is present, and non-recognition is disbelief.’ He supported this by saying that these ordinary people say that they