and al-Jāhiz is reported to have said that knowledge of Allah is necessary knowledge, that it arises in developing natural dispositions following rational inquiry and inference, and that the servant cannot be trusted with it.

Something similar is reported from Thumāmah ibn Ashar.

They also report that al-Jahm said: “Knowledge of Allah arises by Allah’s choice, not by the servant’s choice, because the servant does nothing.”

The majority of Muslim groups maintain that it may arise as necessary knowledge or through rational inquiry. Indeed, many of them say that it arises sometimes in one way and sometimes in the other. Those who allow that it may arise as necessary knowledge include the general body of Ahl al-Sunnah and all others who affirm divine decree, such as al-Ashʿarī and others.

Their speculative thinkers disagree over whether this occurs through a departure from the customary course of events or is itself customary; they hold two views. Among those who say that it is attained sometimes as necessary knowledge and sometimes through rational inquiry are Abū Hāmid, al-Rāzī, al-Āmidī, and others.

Thus, when an objection was raised against them concerning the obligation of rational inquiry—namely, that knowledge may