and others, is that it is attained only through rational inquiry. They ask concerning the servant’s first obligation: is it rational inquiry and inference leading to knowledge of Allah, or knowledge itself? They have disagreed on this, holding two views reported by these groups among the followers of Ahmad and others.

The disagreement is merely verbal. Rational inquiry is obligatory as a means, falling under the principle that whatever is indispensable to fulfilling an obligation is itself obligatory, whereas knowledge is obligatory as an end in itself. Thus, the first obligation among means is rational inquiry, and the first obligation among ends is knowledge.

Some of them say that the first obligation is the intention to undertake rational inquiry. This disagreement, too, is merely verbal, since every voluntary action presupposes volition. Abū Hāshim is reported to have said that the first obligation is doubt.

Many speculative theologians, Sufis, Shiites, and others have said that Allah directly creates knowledge in the hearts of mentally sound adults, without any preceding cause and without rational inquiry or investigation, and that it arises as necessary knowledge. This view is attributed to Sālih Qubbah, Fadl al-Raqāshī, and others.