and existent, as opposed to what is nonexistent—then the harmony among all sound branches of knowledge, beings in due balance, and divine laws also becomes clear to him, and he gives each its due:

“Allah speaks the truth, and He guides to the way.”

“Whoever Allah does not grant light has no light.”

If he reasons carefully, he will recognize what is correct and what is mistaken in Greek logic and philosophy concerning definition and demonstration, especially the premises used in syllogistic reasoning and demonstration. He will also recognize many of their errors in distinguishing between like cases and treating unlike cases alike. These include their acceptance, among the premises of demonstration, of certain propositions that they called “certain” and believed to be universal, although this is not so; and their rejection of certain propositions that they called “commonly accepted” and “based on estimation,” even though these may be stronger than many of the propositions they called “certain,” as has been discussed elsewhere. This, then, is a glimpse of what the speculative theologians and others have said concerning the argument from accidents and similar methods.