obstinate, refusing to accept the truth when it becomes clear to him—a sophist. All nations agree that when a debate reaches familiar, self-evident premises known by necessity, and the opponent denies them, he is a sophist. No one is then enjoined to continue debating him. Rather, if his mind is unsound, they treat him; if he is incapable of recognizing the truth but causes no harm, they leave him alone; and if he deserves punishment, they punish him when able, either through discretionary punishment or execution. Most people submit to the truth only under compulsion.

The point is that they prohibited debate for those who cannot fulfil its requirements, or whose participation brings no preponderant benefit or entails preponderant harm. These are contingent considerations that vary with circumstances.

As for debating in support of the truth as such, it may sometimes be obligatory and sometimes recommended.

In general, debate and disputation include what is praiseworthy and what is blameworthy, harm and benefit, truth and falsehood. Falsehood arises from deficient knowledge or corrupt intent, as Allah Most High says:

“They follow nothing but conjecture and what their own souls desire.” [al-Najm: 23]

Truth arises from knowing the truth and loving it. Allah is the Manifest Truth, and love for Him is the foundation of all worship. Thus, the best of all pursuits, without exception, is knowing Allah and loving Him. This is the religion of Abraham, the close friend of Allah Most High, whom people took as a leader and whom He made a community unto himself, an example for creation to follow. It was he who debated the proponents of negation and the polytheists.