the second category, namely the mutual consultation for which Allah praised them when He, Mighty and Majestic, said:

“Who conduct their affairs by mutual consultation.” [al-Shūrā: 38]

The disputation that Allah Most High recounts concerning the prophets and believers encompasses both categories.

In the Quran, Allah Most High condemned three kinds of disputation: arguing with falsehood to refute the truth, disputing the truth after it has become clear, and arguing about matters of which the disputant has no knowledge.

The Most High said:

“They disputed using falsehood to refute the truth.” [Ghāfir: 5]

And the Most High said:

“They dispute with you concerning the truth after it has become clear.” [al-Anfāl: 6]

And He said:

“Here you are—you have argued about matters of which you have knowledge. Why, then, do you argue about matters of which you have no knowledge?” [Āl ‘Imrān: 66]

The disputation and theological discourse condemned by the early generations and the leading scholars fall into this category. The fundamental object of their condemnation was discourse contrary to the Quran and Sunnah. Such discourse can, in reality, only be false, so whoever argues on its basis argues using falsehood. Yet many people may not recognize that falsehood as such because of the specious arguments it contains. Pure falsehood, whose falsity is apparent to everyone, would not become a position and doctrine defended by a group. Rather, it is falsehood mixed with truth, as the Most High said: