seeking knowledge either examines the words of a teacher who explains matters to him and addresses him in terms that enable him to recognize the truth, or examines the realities themselves, which the speaker describes and which the learner wishes to understand. This is the case with all who study medicine, grammar, and other disciplines: they either examine the words of those who teach the discipline or examine its subject matter, such as bodies and languages.

The early generations examined the finest and most excellent speech, the most truthful and the most clearly indicative of the truth: the speech of Allah Most High. They also examined Allah’s signs in the horizons and within themselves, finding in them evidence demonstrating that the Quran is true. Allah Most High says:

“We will show them Our signs in the horizons and within themselves until it becomes clear to them that it is the truth.” [Fussilat: 53]

Praiseworthy debate is of two kinds, and blameworthy debate is of two kinds. This is because a person engaging in debate either knows the truth, seeks it, or neither knows it nor seeks it. This third case is undoubtedly blameworthy.

As for the first two cases, the praiseworthy debate of someone who knows the truth consists in explaining to another person the proof that will guide him, if he seeks guidance and seeks the truth once it becomes clear to him; or in silencing him and restraining his hostility, if he is obstinate and will not follow the truth once it becomes clear to him; or in bringing him to an understanding, guiding him, and urging him toward the inquirer into the proofs of truth, if he believes it to be true and his aim is the truth.

For when a knowledgeable person who explains the proof debates with his interlocutor, the latter either